September 2007: Constructing a new Peace and Security Architecture to Combat Terrorism in Africa-Lessons from Singapore
The former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, in his 2006 report “Uniting Against Terrorism: Recommendations for a Global Counter-terror Strategy” stressed the importance on the need for the creation of an operational strategy that would enable member states to work together to counter terrorism. Another salient aspect addressed within the report is that any comprehensive counter-terrorism strategy must include a component addressing conditions conducive to exploitation by terrorists to create or increase their power base. The report furthermore cites that many terrorist groups have emerged in the context of local or regional violent conflicts, some of which serve as a rallying cry for terrorist organisations in such regions. Prolonged unresolved conflicts in particular often create conditions conducive to exploitation by terrorists and as such must not be allowed to fester, however intractable they might seem.
Trial, Tribulation and Terror: The unstable African Security Environment
The end of the Cold War led to many of its proxy wars in Africa coming to an end. The security vacuum left in its wake was filled with a new phenomenon of small-scale civil wars that have caused more casualties on the African continent over the last two decades than anywhere else on earth. Conflict in Africa has not only caused the death of millions of innocent civilians, it has also displaced, maimed and traumatised many millions more, which in turn has contributed to further distrust, suspicion, hate and division in the process. These conflicts have disrupted Africa’s already fragile post-colonial, socio-cultural, political and economic systems. Africa’s wars and the deep sense of insecurity as a result have been characterised to a large extent by the involvement of a multiplicity and diversity of military and non-military actors, namely Government military formations, rebels, insurgents, private militias, warlords, criminal gangs, mercenaries, child soldiers and a plethora of other external actors who exert some or other form of influence (both positive and negative) in conflict situations in a particular country. In addition these actors are often embedded in highly complex ‘war networks’ (or what can be described as a ‘regional conflict complex’), that straddle territorial boundaries, identity and ethnic groups. The notion of purely civil or internal wars is no longer sustainable; most African wars are actually regional conflict formations, with added global connections and influences.
The purported aims of the protagonists in Africa’s wars are also defying simple categorisation. The multiplicity of participants translates into a multiplicity of objectives. While some groups may articulate genuine political grievances, or seek state power or self-determination, others pursue ethno-nationalist or religious goals, such as ethnically or religiously pure political communities or the maintenance of elite power(1). Simultaneous local actors may be engaged in struggles to gain access to critical resources, such as water, land, grazing rights or security. In some instances violence is transformed from instrument to objective, that is, from a means to an end, to an end in itself.
Africa’s wars are also notable for their hybrid modalities or strategies, whereby most are prosecuted employing a unique mix of conventional and non-conventional military doctrines, drawn largely from asymmetric warfare strategies.
It is commonly asserted that Africa’s wars are the result of a myriad of structural, economic, political, cultural and historical factors, including, amongst others: the colonial legacies of irrational boundaries; malformed national identity; underdeveloped political institutions and the lack of Governmental legitimacy; economic underdevelopment; poverty; resource scarcity; debt; external interference by former colonial powers; intervention by the superpowers and the legacy of the cold war; extreme levels of militarisation; insecurity and the lack of law and order; ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages; autocratic and repressive forms of governance; corruption; destabilising processes of democratic transition; and regional conflict contagion. These are all considered important variables in the causal matrix of Africa’s wars.
A number of theoretical perspectives provide important insights into the determinants of large-scale political violence. In this context the causes of Africa’s wars are framed and situated in the context of the weak, fragile, failing, collapsed or failed state. Virtually all post-modern wars therefore are said to take place in post-colonial, developing countries where the State is ineffectual, corrupt, vulnerable to external shocks, lacking autonomy and facing a profound crisis of legitimacy. These theories argue that Africa’s wars are the result of either the long-term state-building project, which has always been characterised by a certain degree of violence, or the collapse and decay of the post-colonial state under the pressures of globalisation.
All these factors have a potential facilitating role to play in the rise of extremism and terrorism on the African continent and therefore the creation of a new peace and security architecture in Africa to construct a more stable, secure and democratic African continent is an issue that needs to move rapidly from the drawing boards to realisation. An issue of greater concern is not only that weak, failing and collapsing African states provide the ideal climate for terrorism to flourish, but that African states and citizens may soon become targets and victims of this threat, if it is allowed to gain a greater foothold in Africa.
Peace and security have become a priority issue for the African continent itself, but also for the international community. While it is true that this issue has in the past been recognised as one of the most urgent challenges facing the continent, it had until recently not gained the marked profile it is coming to have as a political priority for concrete political approaches and efforts both inside and outside Africa. The basic parameters involved have clearly shifted in the direction of greater visibility and a heightened will to act. While African states and other shareholders, notably from the US, EU and other countries have identified important objectives and means to address the growing threat of conflict, instability and the threat of terrorism on the continent, one country in particular has devised and crafted a strategy that encompasses a number of crucial spheres in adopting a more holistic approach to combating threats to national security in general and international terrorism in particular.
Lessons from Singapore’s Strategy against terrorism: From Response to Total Prevention
Singapore’s National Security Strategy has aimed, principally to prevent threats to national security from developing in the first instance, protecting Singapore against the more likely threats, responding to such threats if prevention and protection should fail and achieving a quick recovery to return Singapore to a state of normalcy(2). While most observers would deem this the natural response that any country is likely to adopt, the Republic of Singapore has addressed these security challenges by adopting a unique and comprehensive approach - one that does not simply divert attention to direct and proximate prevention of the potential acts of terrorism that could be executed alone, but fundamentally addresses all salient spheres, where the underlying and root causes that could facilitate extremism and terrorism could emerge.
In this respect Singapore has adopted a three-pronged approach to national security that is focused on:
- Prevention, which focuses on the elimination of terror threats before they materialise and is considered to be the most critical layer of defence against terrorism;
- Protection, which focuses on improved capabilities to prevent terrorist actions in order to reduce the overall threat; and
- Response, which focuses on the means of responding swiftly to restore the country to a state of normalcy.
One of the salient aspects that distinguish Singapore’s national security strategy is its emphasis on including the entire country towards the successful implementation thereof. In this respect Singapore has adopted a concept of Total Defence. Introduced in 1984, the concept of Total Defence was adapted from the experience in Switzerland and Sweden. Total Defence is a defence strategy or plan that is not merely rolled out only during times of war. Total Defence provides the framework for a comprehensive and integrated response to deal with all kinds of threats and challenges. Total Defence brings together all relevant Government agencies, private sector organisations and all Singaporeans in a total effort to deal with threats and challenges to Singapore’s continued survival and success.
Total Defence has been divided into five critical aspects:
- Military Defence, focusing on deterring aggression, being operationally ready and possessing the capability to meet all kinds of challenges;
- Civil Defence, focusing on preparedness to respond during civil emergencies, being vigilant and alert to potential threats, whereby the country’s citizens have a crucial role to play;
- Economic Defence, focusing on remaining competitive through rapid change and development and staying relevant through continuous training and enhancing skills and knowledge and by putting into place robust economic systems that can continue to function during times of crises;
- Social Defence, focusing on the creation of a harmonious society where citizens from all races and religions live and work in harmony, by building strong bonds across different ethnic groups and fostering social cohesion. Social defence furthermore focuses on civic responsibility by providing assistance to those in need irrespective of their background; and
- Psychological Defence, focusing on fostering a sense of pride and loyalty to one’s country and possessing the will, resolve and resilience to overcoming challenges.
Towards Solid Foundations for a Peace and Security Architecture for Africa
There are multiple lessons to be learnt from Singapore’s comprehensive defence strategy, one of the salient lessons being that defence is not merely limited to the adoption of military force or military means to resolve conflict or the growing threat of international terrorism. It requires a total approach that involves a country’s entire resources, most importantly a country’s most valuable commodity - its citizens. As Africa prepares to construct its own peace and security architecture, the engineers of this important plan should take heed from the important example that has been set by Singapore in this regard. While advocating African solutions to African problems, it is always useful to consider that while countries possess vastly different political and socio-economic realities, the basic building materials to ensure the creation of strong and solid foundations on which to build a secure, stable and prosperous country remains essentially the same. The blueprint has already been drawn for Africa - it now merely has to muster enough political will, foresight and vision to execute this crucial project of reconstructing the African continent.
(1)Jackson, R.2006. Africa’s Wars: Overview Causes and the Challenges of Conflict Transformation in Ending Africa’s Wars-Progressing to Peace, edited by Oliver Furley and Roy May, England: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
(2) The Fight Against Terror: Singapore’s National Security Strategy, National Security Coordination Centre, Singapore, 2004
(2) The Fight Against Terror: Singapore’s National Security Strategy, National Security Coordination Centre, Singapore, 2004
